The progress in the study of continental dynamics of the Tibetan Plateau
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摘要: 近10年来,"大陆构造与动力学实验室"在青藏高原大陆动力学研究,尤其在特提斯演化和青藏高原生长方面取得若干进展,包括(1)"青藏高原——造山的高原"理念的提出;(2)青藏高原特提斯体制和构造格架的再造;(3)新特提斯蛇绿岩中原位金刚石和深地幔矿物群的重大发现;(4)新特提斯洋盆俯冲新机制的揭示;(5)印度/亚洲碰撞的早期岩浆和喜马拉雅折返中的作用;(6)喜马拉雅三维碰撞造山机制和折返全过程的初步建立;(7)青藏高原东南缘物质逃逸的新机制——"弯曲与地壳解耦"的提出;(8)青藏高原俯冲型、碰撞型及陆内型片麻岩穹窿;(9)青藏高原东缘汶川强震的构造背景和强震机制;(10)青藏高原碰撞造山成矿模式;(11)印度/亚洲碰撞过程的数值模拟。综述和集成上述成果是为了与同行们交流磋商,进一步共同发展青藏高原大陆动力学理论,向国际地学前沿的冲刺。Abstract: Based on the previously research, the research group of Key Laboratory of Continental Tectonics and Dynamics has achieved lots of great progress in the study of the continental dynamics of the Tibetan Plateau, especially in the evolution of Tethys and the growth of the Tibetan Plateau during the past decade. These achievements can be summarized as follows:(1) The Hypothesis on Tibetan Plateau as a orogenic plateau was proposed; (2) the reconstruction of the tectonic framework and the Tibetan-Tethys system; (3) the discovery of in situ diamond and deep mantle-derived mineral group in the ophiolites distributed along the Neotethyan suture zone; (4) the understanding of the subduction mechanism of the Neotethy oceanic basins; (5) the role of magmatism formed in the early stage of the Indo-Asian collision for the exhumation of Himalaya; (6) the establishment of the 3D models of the collisional orogeny and exhumation of the Himalaya; (7) the new proposal on the extrusion of the SE Tibetan Plateau:‘crustal bending and decouple’; (8) the subduction-related, collision-related and continental gneiss domes with Tibetan Plateau; (9) the tectonic setting and the Wenchuan Earthquake mechanism on the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau; (10) Numerical modeling of the Indo-Asian collisional process. This paper aims to communicate with and stimulate interest among global geologists to make further development in the continental dynamics of the Tibetan Plateau.
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Keywords:
- Tibetan Plateau /
- continental dynamics /
- Tethys system /
- Indo-Asian collision
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1. 引言
随着近些年油气勘探的逐步深入，已证实了辽西地区侏罗系北票组泥岩具有很好的生烃潜力，是该区重要油气勘探层系（李永飞等，2014；孙守亮等，2017；肖飞等，2017；赵洪伟等，2018；孙求实等，2018；张君峰等，2018；刘淼等, 2018, 2019）。北票组主要分布于辽西地区金羊盆地、北票盆地等中生代盆地，在凌源地区牛营子凹陷地表未见发育。牛营子凹陷是松辽外围南部盆地群油气基础地质调查的重点凹陷，之前的勘探目的层为中元古界高于庄组，并获得了油气发现（肖飞等，2018；Sun et al., 2019）。
牛营子凹陷位于华北地台北缘东段，是辽西凌源—宁城盆地东南部的次级凹陷，凹陷近NE走向，长约20 km，宽约6 km，面积约120 km2（孙求实等，2017；王浩等，2019）。在中生代经历了燕山期的逆冲推覆，逆冲推覆断裂大致呈15°，沿柴杖子北庄—太平杖子—牛营子方向延伸，断面倾向北西，倾角50~70°，伴有同构造沉积，形成特有的邓杖子组（J2d）碳酸质角砾岩沉积（图 1）。
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图 1 牛营子凹陷地质略图1—逆断层；2—正断层；3—逆冲推覆构造；4—侵入岩；5—第四系(Q)；6—白垩系义县组(K1y)；7—侏罗系髫髻山组(J2t)；8—侏罗系邓杖子组(J2d)；9—侏罗系海房沟组(J2h)；10—二叠系石盒子组(P2s)；11—寒武系—奥陶系并层(∈—O)；12—中新元古界并层(Pt)Figure 1. Geological sketch map of Niuyingzi depression1-Reverse fault; 2- Normal fault; 3-Thrust nappe structure; 4-Intrusive rock; 5-Quaternary; 6-Yixian Formation; 7-Tiaojishan Formation; 8-Dengzhangzi Formation; 9-Haifanggou Formation; 10-Shihezi Formation; 11-Cambrian-Ordovician; 12-Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic2017年中国地质调查局沈阳地质调查中心组织实施辽凌地1井钻探，在中元古界高于庄组灰色白云质灰岩之下，井深1527.91~1722.78 m（未见底），钻遇厚层暗色优质烃源岩，岩性以泥砂互层为主，并夹少量煤线。从钻井揭示的地层发育情况来看，该套地层厚度超过195 m，其中泥岩累计总厚度102.58 m，单层厚度大于3 m的泥岩厚度为33.69 m，砂岩累计厚度92.42 m，泥地比59.79%，并见多段气测异常：该井段气测录井全烃值大于背景值2倍地层厚度为39 m；全烃最大值为10.78%。牛营子凹陷地表并未发现有可类比地层（徐刚等，2003；胡健民等，2005），该套暗色泥岩的时代存在不确定性，因此厘定该套地层成为该地区油气勘探的重要工作。
本文综合分析辽凌地1井钻孔资料，结合区域地层资料，通过岩性及孢粉组合特征的研究将该套地层厘定为早侏罗统北票组（J1b）。这一地层新发现为研究牛营子凹陷构造演化以及油气地质调查中找寻侏罗统烃源岩层提供了重要的基础地质资料。早侏罗统北票组（J1b）地层的确定，将该地区原有单一的中新元古界勘探层系拓展为中新元古界黑色碳酸盐岩地层和中生界北票组泥岩两套深部油气勘探层系。该认识对于辽西地区油气勘探工作，乃至松辽外围南部盆地群的油气勘探工作都有重要意义。
2. 钻孔剖面描述
辽凌地1井中元古界推覆体下沉积岩地层钻孔剖面描述如下（图 2）：
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图 2 辽凌地1井北票组综合柱状图1—砾屑白云岩；2—泥岩；3—细砂岩；4—含砾中砂岩；5—含砾粗砂岩；6—中砂岩；7—粉砂质泥岩；8—泥质粉砂岩；9—粉砂岩；10—炭质泥岩；11—含气层；12—植物叶片；13—砂质条带；14—斜层理；15—植物茎秆化石；16—水平层理；17—冲刷面；18—爬升层理；19—槽状交错层理；20—泥质条带；21—生物扰动构造；22—块状层理；23—波状层理Figure 2. Stratigraphic section of LLD1 well1-Dolorudite; 2-Mudstone; 3-Fine sandstone; 4-Conglomeratic medium sandstone; 5-Conglomeratic gritstone; 6-Medium sandstone; 7-Silty mudstone; 8-Argillaceous siltstone; 9-Siltystone; 10-Carbon mudstone; 11-Gas bearing formation; 12-Plant leaves; 13-Sandy belt; 14-Oblique bedding; 15-Fossilized plant stalks; 16-Horizontal bedding; 17-Scour surface; 18-Climb bedding; 19-Trough cross-bedding; 20-Argillaceous stripe; 21-Bioturbate structures; 22-Massive bedding; 23-Wave bedding断层下盘侏罗系地层（J）>194.87 m
上覆地层：中元古界高于庄组碳酸盐岩
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27.黑色泥岩 23.54 m
26.灰色细粒石英砂岩，石英含量约95%，长石岩屑约5%。细粒结构，其中细粒约70%，细粒大小约0.2 mm, 分选中等，磨圆好。 7.26 m
25.灰黑色泥岩 14.85 m
24.灰色含砾中砂岩，砾石主要为石英，砾径大小约5 mm×6 mm，次棱角状，分选一般，局部见炭屑。 3.23 m
23.黑灰色泥岩 12.25 m
22.灰色砂质细砾岩，砾石成分主要为石英砂岩，砾石大小2~5 mm，次棱角状，分选一般，含量70%，砂质胶结，局部见少量岩屑。 8.66 m
21.黑色泥岩 5.56 m
20.灰色中粒石英长石砂岩，中细粒砂状结构，碎屑成分主要为石英，大小0.5 mm，含量约20%；长石，大小0.4~0.5 mm，含量约70%。石英、长石颗粒磨圆较好，分选一般，颗粒支撑，硅质胶结，致密坚硬。 22.08 m
19.灰黑色粉砂质泥岩，含植物碎屑。 21.61 m
18.灰色石英长石中砂岩，中粒砂状结构，粒径大小约0.4 mm，与上层渐变接触。 4.69 m
17.黑灰色粉砂质泥岩，含植物碎屑 4.2 m
16.灰色石英长石中砂岩，中粒砂状结构，粒径大小约0.4 mm。 6.49 m
15.灰黑色泥岩 3.03 m
14.灰色石英长石中砂岩 3.30 m
13.黑色炭质泥岩 4.26 m
12.灰色石英长石中砂岩，中粒砂状结构，粒径大小约0.4 mm。 4.23 m
11.黑色炭质泥岩 3.96 m
10.灰色石英长石中砂岩，中粒砂状结构，粒径大小约0.4 mm。 3.70 m
9.黑色炭质泥岩 6.74 m
8.灰色石英长石中砂岩，中粒砂状结构，粒径大小约0.4 mm。 3.88 m
7.黑色炭质泥岩，含植物碎屑。 3.81 m
6.灰色石英长石中砂岩，中粒砂状结构，粒径大小约0.4 mm。 3.85 m
5.深灰色细砂岩，砂状结构，局部含炭屑，分选好，粒径大小约0.2 mm。 4.46 m
4.深灰色石英长石中砂岩，中粒砂状结构，粒度逐渐变粗，倾角约30°，局部层理发育。 3.06 m
3.灰黑色粉砂质泥岩 5.11 m
2.深灰色粉砂岩，粉砂质结构，矿物碎屑主要为石英、长石。 3.43 m
1.灰色细砂岩，砂状结构，成分主要为石英、长石，分选好，次棱角状，粒径约0.2 mm。
未见底
3. 孢粉组合特征及时代
为了获得目的层较全面的孢粉植物群资料，对辽凌地1井中元古界推覆体下细碎屑沉积地层中进行了孢粉样品采集工作，共采集样品24件，采样间距0.2 m，样品岩性主要为灰黑色细砂岩、灰黑色粉砂岩以及含植物碎屑的黑色泥页岩，每件样品重500 g。孢粉样品经过盐酸、HF浸泡，加重液离心，显微镜下观察（丁秋红等，2003；宋之琛等，2008），经分析在24个样品中有8个样品产有孢粉，其中LD1-1542.2、LD1-1543.3、ND2-1492三个样品孢粉含量较高（>20粒），共计25个属。具体结果见表 1。
表 1 辽凌地1井孢粉化石统计表Table 1. Statistics of sporomorph in LLD1 well
样品孢粉化石组合特征如下：（1）裸子植物花粉占据优势地位，其中双气囊裸子类花粉具有较高的含量，如Podocarpidites sp.，Pinuspollenites sp.，Piceites sp.等，样品中可见少量气囊发育欠佳的古老类型，如Paleoconiferus sp.；具单远极沟类的Cycadopites sp.，Monosulcites sp.含量较少；掌鳞杉科的Classopollis sp.仅在个别样品中少量出现，（2）蕨类植物孢子含量相对较低，孢子中数量较多的是Cyathidites sp.，Deltoidospora sp.，Osmundacidites sp.等，见图 3。
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图 3 辽凌地1井代表性孢粉属种a—无突肋纹孢属Cicatricosisporits sp.；b—凹边孢属Converrucosisporites sp.；c—桫椤孢属Cyathidites sp.；d—三角粒面孢属Granulatisporites sp.；e—托第蕨孢属Todisporites sp.；f—波缝孢属Undulatisporites sp.；g—三角孢属Deltoidospora sp.；h—弓堤孢属Kyrtomisporis sp.；i—紫萁孢属Osmundacidites sp.；j—苏铁粉属Cycadopites sp.；k—凹边孢属Concavisporites sp.；l—单远极沟粉属Monosulcites sp.；m—皱球粉属Psophospheara sp.n—云杉粉属Piceaepollenites sp.；o—拟云杉粉属Piceites sp.；p—原始松粉属Protopinus sp.；q—克拉梭粉属Classopollis sp.；r—广口粉属Chasmatosporites sp.；s—四字粉属Quadraeculina sp.；t—罗汉松粉属Podocarpidites sp.；u—古松柏粉属Paleoconiferus sp.；v—假云杉粉属Pseudopicea sp.；w—双束松粉属Pinuspollenites sp.；x—原始云杉粉属Protopicea sp.（所有孢粉的实体化石及图片均保存于中国地质大学（武汉）地球科学学院微体古生物实验室，化石图片均放大800倍）Figure 3. The representative sporopollen of LLD1 well根据孢粉所显示出的特征看, 裸子植物花粉在样品中极为丰富，而以具囊花粉最盛，Classopollis的含量相对较少。蕨类孢子以桫椤科的Cyathidites和Deltoidospora占显著地位, 是世界各地下—中侏罗统孢粉谱的常见特点, 但通常到中侏罗世, 它们才最为繁盛。通过与东北地区早侏罗世晚期北票组Cyathidites-Cycadopites- Paleoconiferus组合及中侏罗世海房沟组Cyathidites-Cycadopites- Classopollis组合对比（王宪曾等，2000; 宋之琛等，2008），可将样品的时代确定为早侏罗世晚期—中侏罗世。
4. 岩石组合特征
参考《辽宁地质志》的地层划分以及《辽宁省岩石地层》地层资料（辽宁省地质矿产局, 1985; 辽宁省地质矿产勘查开发局, 1997），结合野外地质调查，燕辽地区区域上中生代主要有以下地层展布（图 4）：下侏罗统兴隆沟组（J1x）、北票组（J1b），中侏罗统海房沟组（J2h）、邓杖子组（J2d）、髫髻山组（J2t），上侏罗统土城子组（J3t），沙河子组（J3s）。辽宁凌源地区地表出露的侏罗世地层主要有：下侏罗统水泉沟组（J1s），中侏罗统海房沟组（J2h）、邓杖子组（J2d）、髫髻山组（J2t），上侏罗统土城子组（J3t），该地区北票组时期地表地层缺失（图 4中红色区域）（张路锁等，2016）。
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图 4 燕辽地区侏罗世地层对比图（徐刚等，2003）Figure 4. The Comparison of Jurassic strata in Yanshan-Liaoning area(Xu Gang et al., 2003)区域上展布的早—中侏罗世地层主要为兴隆沟组（牛营子凹陷命名为水泉沟组）、北票组和海房沟组（徐刚，2003）。兴隆沟组（J1x）以玄武岩、玄武安山岩、安山质角砾岩及集块岩为主，局部具沉积岩夹层的一套中基性火山岩地层（辽宁省地质矿产局，1985；辽宁省地质矿产勘查开发局，1997），辽凌地1井下的暗色泥岩与其区别明显。区域上北票组和海房沟组主要通过岩性组合特征区分。
为进一步确定辽凌地1井中元古界碳酸盐岩推覆体下厚层暗色泥岩地层的时代，需要与北票组和海房沟组的代表剖面进行岩性对比。笔者选择北票盆地三宝四坑剖面进行了实测（图 5为实测的岩性柱），该剖面是北票组的建组剖面，具有代表性（孙守亮，2017；孙求实，2018）。剖面描述如下：
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图 5 北票盆地三宝四坑实测剖面北票组柱状图Figure 5. The histogram of Beipiao Group of the Sanbaosikeng measured section in Beipiao Basin上覆：髫髻山组（J2t）灰绿色安山质角砾凝灰熔岩
———————平行不整合——————
海房沟组（J2h） 290.72 m
18.黄褐色中—厚层粗粒长石石英砂岩 22.81 m
17.黄色泥质页岩 35.77 m
16.黄褐色中—厚层细砾复成分砾岩夹黄褐色中层中粗粒长石石英砂岩 37.03 m
15.灰色中—厚层细砾复成分砾岩 138.74 m
14.灰绿色流纹质沉凝灰岩 20.00 m
13.黄灰色厚—巨厚层中粗砾复成分砾岩 36.37 m
~~~~~~~角度不整合~~~~~~~
北票组（J1b） 767.34 m
12.黄褐色泥质页岩夹黄褐色中—厚层细砾复成分砾岩及黄褐色薄—中厚中粒长石砂岩 96.99 m
11.黄褐色薄—中厚层中细粒长石砂岩夹灰色粉砂质页岩 42.57 m
10.黄褐色页岩夹黄褐色薄—中厚层细粒长石砂岩及薄层粉砂岩 88.77 m
9.黄褐色中厚层中粒长石砂岩夹细砂质页岩 18.27 m
8.黄褐色泥质页岩 140.98 m
7.黄褐色中—厚层含砾中粗粒长石石英砂岩夹泥质页岩 24.25 m
6.黄褐色页岩夹黄褐色薄—中厚层中细粒长石砂岩 105.83 m
5.黄褐色中—厚层中细砾复成分砾岩 13.94 m
4.黄褐色中厚层中粗粒岩屑长石砂岩夹页岩 96.54 m
3.灰色泥质页岩夹煤线 39.99 m
2.黄褐色厚层中粗砾复成分砾岩 34.02 m
1.灰色、灰紫色中厚层不等粒复成分砾岩 75.19 m
——————平行不整合——————
下伏：兴隆沟组（J1x) 灰色安山岩夹灰褐色安山岩质角砾熔岩.
总结北票盆地三宝四坑剖面岩性特征，结合前人研究资料（丁秋红等，2016），北票组和海房沟组岩性差异明显，北票组的岩性组合特征是以长石石英砂岩、长石砂岩和灰色灰黑色页岩为主，夹单成分或复成分砾岩及煤线的一套沉积岩层；海房沟组是不整合于北票组或其他老地层之上的灰白色黄灰色复成分砾岩夹黄灰色长石石英砂岩，局部夹炭质页岩、煤层及灰色灰绿色流纹质凝灰熔岩、凝灰岩的一套沉积组合。辽凌地1井下的这套沉积岩层以灰黑色泥页岩和中—细粒石英长石为主，局部夹薄煤层，从岩石组合特征来看，与区域上的海房沟组差异明显，与北票组具有可对比性。
5. 结论
（1）辽西地区牛营子凹陷辽凌地1井中元古界地层推覆体之下发现的暗色厚层沉积岩层，通过对岩性及孢粉组合特征的研究，证实该套地层时代为早—中侏罗世，可与辽西其他地区北票组对比。
（2）有机地球化学指标表明，该套泥岩具有有机质丰度高、生烃潜力大的特点，是值得关注的优质烃源岩，可作为该地区油气基础地质调查的新层系。这一认识为研究区域构造演化、油气地质条件提供了重要的基础地质资料。
（3）该套地层的发现和厘定，为松辽外围南部盆地群油气地质调查中找寻侏罗系烃源岩层提供了重要的基础地质资料，丰富了凌源地区的油气勘探层系：将原有单一的中新元古界勘探层系拓展为中新元古界黑色碳酸盐岩地层和中生界北票组泥岩两套深部油气勘探层系，这一新发现对于辽西地区油气勘探工作，乃至松辽外围南部盆地群的油气勘探工作都有重要意义。
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图 1 青藏高原构造构架图(据许志琴[4]修改)
QL—祁连地体；EKL—东昆仑地体；ALT—阿尔金地体；NSG—北松潘—甘孜地体；SSG—南松潘—甘孜地体；NQT—北羌塘地体；SQT—南羌塘地体；WKL—西昆仑地体；TSH—甜水海地体；LS—拉萨地体；TC—腾冲地体；BS—保山地体；SM—思茅地体；IDC—印度支那地体；HM—喜马拉雅地体；AFH—阿富汗地体；GDS—冈底斯地体；ANMQS—阿尼马卿缝合带；JSJS—金沙江缝合带；LSS—龙木错—双湖缝合带；BG—NJ—班公湖—怒江缝合带；IYS—印度—雅鲁藏布江缝合带；ALTF—阿尔金断裂；XSHF—鲜水河断裂；ALS—RRF —哀牢山—红河断裂；LCJF—澜沧江断裂；GLGF—高黎贡断裂；JLF—嘉黎断裂；SGF—实皆断裂；MBT—主边界冲断裂；MFT—主前锋逆冲断裂；KKF—喀喇昆仑断裂；CMF—恰曼断裂
Figure 1. Tectonic framework of the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding regions(modified after Xu [4])
QL-Qilian terrane;EKL-East Kunlun terrane;ALT-Altin terrane;NSG-North Songpan-Ganze terrane;SSG-South Songpan-Ganze terrane;NQT-North Qiangtang terrane;SQT-South Qiangtang terrane;WKL-West Kunlun terrane;TSH-Tianshuihan terrane;LS-Lhasa terrane;TC-Tengchong terrane;BS-Baoshan terrane;SM-Simao terrane;IDC-Indochine terrane;HM-Himalaya terrane;AFH-Afghanistan terrane;GDS-Gangdese terrane;ANMQS-Anyemaqen suture zone;JSJS-Jingshajiang suture zone;LSS-Lonhmucuo-Shuanghu suture zone;BG-NJ-Banggonghu-Nujiang suture zone;IYS-Indus-Yaluzangbujiang sutire zone;ALTF-Altyn-Tagh Fault;XSHF-Xiangshuihe Fault;ALS-RRF-Alaoshan-Red River Fault;LCJF-Langcangjiang Fault;GLGF-Gaoligong Fault;JLF-Jiali Fault;SGF-Sagaing Fault;MBT-Main Bounded Thrust;MFT-Main Frontal Fault;KKF-Karakunrun Fault;CMF-Chaman Fault
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图 3 祁连—阿尔金早古生代变质作用年代格架图
NQL—北祁连地体;QLB—祁连地块;NQD—北柴达木地体;NAT—北阿尔金缝合带;SAT—南阿尔金缝合带;CAB—中阿尔金地块
Figure 3. Schematic tectonic map of the Qilian-Altun Early Paleozoic orogen showing metamorphism age
NQL-North Qilian terrane;QLB-Qilian block;NQD-North Qaidam terrane;NAT-North Altin suture zone;SAT-South Altun suture zone;CAB-Central Altin terrane
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图 4 青藏高原古特提斯构造格架图[28]
显示青藏高原古特提斯体系由东基墨里(淡绿色)和西华夏陆块组成(深绿色)EKL—ANMQS—东昆仑—阿尼玛卿缝合带；WKLS—西昆仑缝合带；LTS—理塘复合带；JSJ—ALS—SMS—金沙江—哀牢山—松马缝合带；LS —CM—龙木措/双湖—沧宁/孟良缝合带；JH—NU—SKS—景洪—Nan Uttaradit —Sra Kaeo缝合带；BNS—班公湖—怒江缝合带；SQH—JLS—狮泉河—嘉里缝合带；SDS—松多缝合带；ITS—印度斯—雅鲁藏布缝合带；WQL—西秦岭缝合带；BHDA—布尔汗布达弧地体；YDA—义敦岛弧；LC—ST—CBA—临沧—Sukhothai—Chanthaburi弧地体;KHA—科希斯坦弧地体；LDA—拉达克弧地体;WQL—西秦岭地体；ALTF:阿尔金断裂；NQLT—北祁连逆冲断裂;LMST—龙门山逆冲断裂；RRF—红河断裂；KKF—喀喇昆仑断裂;MFT—主前锋逆冲断裂；SGF—实皆断裂；GLGF—高黎贡断裂
Figure 4. Schematic tectonic map showing the Palaeo-Tethys system and geochrological data of the East Cimmerides and West Cathaysides in Tibet[28]
EKL-ANMQS-East Kunlun suture zone;WKLS-West Kunlun suture zone;LTS-Litang suture zone;JSJ-ALS-SMS-Jingshajiang—Ailaoshan-Songma suture zone;LS -CM-Lingmucuo-Shuanghu-Channing-Mengliang suture zone;JH-NU-SKS-Jinghong-Nan Uttaradit-Sra Kaeo suture zone;BNS-banggonghu-Nujiang sutire zone;SQH-JLS-Shiquanghe-Jiali suture zone;SDS-Songduo suture zone;ITS-Indus-Yaluzangbujiang suture zone;WQL-West Qiling suture zone;BHDA-Bulhanbuda arc terrane;YDA-Yidun arc;LC-ST-CBA-Lingcang-Sukhothai-Chanthaburi terrane);KHA-Kohistan arc terrane;LDA-Ladakh arc terrane;WQL-West Kunlun terrane;ALTF-Altyn Tagh Fault;NQLT-North Qilian Thrust;LMST-Longmenshan Thrust;RRF-Red River Fault;KKF-Karakunrun Fault;MFT-Main Frontal Fault;SGF-Sigaing Fault;GLGF-Gaoligong Fault
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图 19 喜马拉雅造山带地质简图(改自[117, 104, 118])
GHC—高喜马拉雅结晶岩系；LH—低喜马拉雅；SH—次喜马拉雅；TH—特提斯喜马拉雅；LHCN—低喜马拉雅结晶岩片；ITSZ—印度—雅鲁藏布缝合带；GCT—大反冲断裂；KF—喀喇昆仑断裂；MBT—主边界断裂；MCT—主中央冲断裂；MFT—主前缘冲断裂；MKT—喀喇昆仑主冲带；STD-藏南拆离系；References for the STD: Khula Kangri[85, 86],Wagye La [93],Dinggye [94],Rongbuk,Nyalam [89, 94],Everest [91],Shisha-Pangma[90],Manaslu [87],Annapurna Range [88],and Gurla Mandhata [92]; References for the MCT from east to west: Arunachal Himalaya [6],Bhutan [103],Sikkim [119],Kathmandu nappe [120, 121],Annapurna Range[88]
Figure 19. Simplified geological map of the Himalayan orogen(modified after references [117, 104, 118])
GHC-Great Himalaya Complex;LH-Lesser Himalaya;SH-Subhimalaya;TH-Tethys-Himalaya;LHCN-Lesser Himalaya Complex;ITSZ-Indus-Yaluzangbu suture zone;GCT-Great Couter Thrust;KF-Karakunlun Fault;MBT-Main Bonded Thrust;MCT-Main Central Thrust;MFT-Main Frontal Thrust;MKT-Main Karakunlun Thrust;STD-South Tibet Detachment;References for the STD: Khula Kangri[85, 86],Wagye La [93],Dinggye [94],Rongbuk,Nyalam [89, 94],Everest [91],Shisha-Pangma[90],Manaslu [87],Annapurna Range [88],and Gurla Mandhata [92].References for the MCT from east to west: Arunachal Himalaya [6],Bhutan [103],Sikkim [119],Kathmandu nappe [120, 121],Annapurna Range[88]
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图 20 高喜马拉雅三维挤出模式
TH—特提斯—喜马拉雅地体;GHC—高喜马拉雅地体;LH—低喜马拉雅地体;STD—藏南拆离系;MCT—主中逆冲断裂;GHD—高喜马拉雅拆离系;GHT-高喜马拉雅逆冲系;Indian middle-lower crust -印度中下地壳;Indian lithospheric mantle-印度岩石圈地幔
Figure 20. Three dimensional extrusion model for Great Himalaya
TH-Himalaya terrane; GHC- Great Himalaya terrane; LH-Lesser Himalaya terrane; STD-South Tibet Detachment; MCT-Main Central Thrust GHD-Great Himalaya Detachment;GHT-Great Himalaya Thrust
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图 22 青藏高原三江地区腾冲地体的构造图(a)及剖面图(e,f)(据Xu[28])
a据云南省地质局1: 250,000潞西地区地质图(2008)修正;b、cd为东河拆离剪切带中的面理和拉伸线理投影图。YJSZ—盈江走滑剪切带；LHSZ—梁河走滑剪切带；GLGSZ—高黎贡走滑剪切带；SDSZ—苏典走滑剪切带；NBSZ-拉邦走滑剪切带。①—苏典(Sudian)花岗岩体;②—盈江(Yingjiang)花岗岩体；③—古永(Guyong)花岗岩体；④—东河(Donghe)花岗岩体。构造图显示来自前人和笔者的U-Pb年龄。东河拆离剪切带的面理和线理下半球投影：b—北龙陵地区；c—西芒市地区；d—北瑞丽地区；e—NW向剖面AA’；f—NE向剖面BB；①—苏典片麻岩穹隆；②—盈江片麻岩穹隆；③—贵永片麻岩穹隆；④—东河片麻岩穹隆
Figure 22. Simplified geological map(a)and geological section(e,f)of the Tengchong Terrane in western Yunnan Province with geochronological dataa
a Simplified geological map modified after the 1: 250,000 Geological Map of Luxi Region by Geological Survey of Yunnan Province (2008); b,c,d Lower hemisphere projection of the foliation and stretching lineation of the Donghe Detachment; YJSZ-Yingjiang strike-slip shear zone; LHSZLianghe strike-slip shear zone; GLGSZ-Gaoligong strike-slip shear zone; SDSZ-Sudian strike-slip shear zone; NBSZ-Naban strike-slip shear zone; ①-Sudian granite pluton;②-Yingjiang granite pluton; ③-Guyong granite pluton;④-Donghe granite pluton. Sample locations are labeled by the first two numbers in a sample number. U-Pb zircon ages from previous studies and this study. Lower hemisphere projection of the foliation and stretching lineation of the Donghe Detachment from: b-the northern Longling area, (c-the western Mangshi area, and d-the northern Ruili area, e-NW-trending cross-section AA′ and f-NE-trending cross-section BB′ in the southern Tengchong Terrane. ①-Sudian gneiss dome; ②-Yingjiang gneiss dome; ③-Guyong gneiss dome; ④-Donghe gneiss dome
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图 23 腾冲地体的弯曲模式(据Xu[28])
五角星表示东构造结在41 Ma的位置，腾冲地体围绕原东构造结沿着右行走滑断裂顺时针旋转，这些走滑断裂将腾冲地体分割成若干的平行板片，并围绕原始东构造结形成垂直倾伏的褶皱，形成腾冲地体的弯曲模式
Figure 23. A bending model of the Tengchong Terrane(after Xu[28])
A star indicates the position of the proto-eastern Himalayan syntaxis at 41 Ma. Clockwise rotation of the Tengchong Terrane around protoeastern Himalayan syntaxis was achieved by the dextral movement along strike-slip shear zones, which separated the Tengchong Terrane into several parallel crustal slices and formed vertically plunging folds around the proto-eastern Himalayan syntaxis
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图 24 松潘—甘孜造山带西南部雅江地区三叠纪西康群中的片麻岩穹隆分布图(据许志琴[133])
1—夕线石带；2—十字石带；3—红柱石带4—石榴石带；5—黑云母带；6—绢云母-绿泥石带
Figure 24. The distribution of the gneiss domes of the Xikang Group in the Yajiang region(after Xu[133])
1-Sillimalite zone;2-Granatite zone;3-Andalusite zone;4-Garnet zone;5-Biotite zone;6-Sericite-Chlorite zone
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图 26 帕米尔片麻岩穹隆群分布图(据文献[139-143])
位于中帕米尔的穹隆：①Yazgulom穹隆,②Sarez穹隆,③Muskol穹隆,④Shortpat穹隆；位于南帕米尔的穹隆：⑤Sarez穹隆；位于北帕米尔的穹隆：⑥空喀山(Kongur)穹隆⑦Kurgovat穹隆MPT—主帕米尔逆冲断裂;KDS—库地缝合带;KLS—昆仑缝合带;JSS—金沙江缝合带;IYS—印度斯—雅江缝合带;BGS—班公湖—怒江缝合带;KKF—喀喇昆仑断裂;MKT—主喀喇昆仑逆冲断裂;CMT—恰曼断裂;STD—藏南拆离系;MCT—主中冲断裂;MBT—主边冲断裂
Figure 26. Tectonic map of the western end of the Himalayan—Tibetan orogen showing distribution of gneiss domes(modified after references [139-143])
MPT-Main Pamir Thrust; KDS-Kudi suture zone; KLS-Kunlun suture zone; JSS-Jingshajiang suture zone;IYS-Indus-Yaluzangbujian suture zone; BGS-Banggonghu-Nujiang suture zone; KKF-Karakurun Fault; MKT-Main Karakunrun Thrust; CMT-Chaman Fault; STD-South Tibet Detachment; MCT-Main Central Thrust; MBT-Main Bounded Thrust
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图 27 空喀山片麻岩穹隆剖面图
KP—空喀山花岗岩体;KG—空喀山花岗片麻岩；KM—空喀山变质岩;KDS—库地始特提斯缝合带；EKT—东空喀山逆冲断裂；WKD-西空喀山拆离断裂
Figure 27. Cross-section of the Kongur gneiss dome(after 1: 250,000 Geological Map ofWest Kunlun)
KP-Kongur granite;KG-Kongur granitic gneiss; KM-Kongur metamorphic rocks;KDS-Kudi Proto-Tethys suture zone; EKT-East Kongur Thrust; WKD-West Kongur Detachment
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图 28 汶川地震断裂科学钻探(WFSD-1)岩心剖面以及地震主滑移带特征(据Li[145])
a—WFSD-1剖面图,汶川地震同震破裂带中的主滑移带(红线,在岩心589.2 m深处)斜切映秀—北川断裂带;b—岩心589.2 m深处发育汶川地震擦痕的断层泥表面,反光度较高;c—主滑移带局部扫描电镜背散射图像,显示其厚度约为200 μm,局部富含石墨;d—透射电镜图像显示纳米级石墨颗粒
Figure 28. Petrological profile of the Scientific Drilling on theWenchuan Earthquake Fault(WFSD-1)and characteristics of seismic principal slip zone (modified after Li[145])
a-Sketch profile of the WFSD-1,theWenchuan earthquake PSZ cuts across the Yingxiu—Beichuan fault obliquely;b-Drilling core from 589.2 m-depth shows slickensides with high reflection;c-SEM-BSE image shows thatWenchuan earthquake PSZ is about 200 μm-thick and is locally rich in graphite; d TEM image shows nanometer graphite particles
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图 29 摩擦实验中变形断层泥的显微构造特征和断裂主滑移带(PSZ)的矿物特征(据Kuo[146])
A—汶川地震断裂主滑移带高反光度表面发育擦痕,其方向与旋转运动方向相同；B— SEM-BSE图片中细粒化主滑移带(PSZ)厚度25~125μm,右下插图显示细小石墨颗粒;C—原位同步辐射XRD谱图显示主滑移带矿物变化
Figure 29. Microstructural characteristics of experimentally deformed black gouges and mineral characteristics of the principal slip zone(PSZ)(after Kuo[146])
A-Photograph of highly reflective surface of the principal slip zone(PSZ)lined by slickenlines and grooves that trackthe rotary motion of the gouge holder;B-SEM-BSE images show fine-grained PSZ of 25-125 μm thick.Inset backscattered SEM image shows detail of small graphite particles;C-Mineralogical changes within the experimental PSZ determined by in situ synchrotron X-ray analyses
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图 30 汶川地震断裂科学钻探WFSD-1钻孔内长期温度测温数据(据Li[145])
A-汶川地震断裂科学钻探WFSD-1钻孔及长期测温设备;B-21条长期测温剖面(已扣除地温梯度0.02℃/m);C-0.02 ℃的残余热;D-WFSD-1钻孔中跨断层温度异常的最大振幅估算的断裂有效同震摩擦系数(μ=0.02)
Figure 30. Long-time temperature measurement in the Scientific Drilling on theWenchuan Earthquake Fault(WFSD-1)(modifield after Li[145])
A-WFSD-1 drill hole and long-term temperature measurement device;B-Complete data set focused on 350-800 m-depth;C-Close-up of the 589 m zone from the high-precision stop-go logs with arbitrary zeros;(d)-Predicted maximum amplitude of the temperature anomaly for the fault in the WFSD-1 drill hole with representative effective coseismic coefficients of friction
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图 31 汶川地震断裂科学钻探WFSD-1水文地质参数随时间变化图(据Xue[147])
A-渗透率和导水系数;B-储水系数；黑色的小圆点代表没有约束的换算值,红色的点代表将S值固定在平均值后换算的结果，图A中黑色点完全覆盖了红点；垂向虚线代表选区的地震事件,造成渗透率的快速上升
Figure 31. Hydrogeologic properties of the well-aquifer system over time from the Scientific Drilling on theWenchuan Earthquake Fault(WFSD-1)(After Xue[147])
A-Permeability and transmissivity;B-Storage coefficient.The black dots denote an unconstrained inversion;the red dots are the results of inversion with the storage coefficient fixed to a single value.Because the two separate inversions have identical results for transmissivity,the red dots cover the black dots in A.The vertical dashed lines show the time of the selected teleseismic events,which correspond to sudden increases in permeability
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图 32 冈底斯碰撞型斑岩铜矿床成矿模型
Figure 32. The metallogenic model of the collisional related porphyry deposits from the Gandise belt
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图 33 拉萨冈底斯地体中新世花岗岩Nd和Hf同位素初始值在不同经度上的分布特征，由图可见含矿岩体具有高Nd和Hf同位素初始值(据Hou[151])
Figure 33. The єNd and єHf isotopic characteristics in difference longitudes of the Miocene granite from the Gandise belt,Lhasa terrane.The ore bearing granites have high єNd and єHf isotopic data,which are shown in the figure(modified after Hou[151])
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图 34 拉萨地体中新生代岩浆岩Hf同位素特征及矿床分布(据Hou[151])
BNSZ—班公湖—怒江缝合带；IYZSZ—雅鲁藏布江缝合带；NLS—北拉萨；CLS—中拉萨；SLS—南拉萨；Inferred basement fault —推测基底断裂
Figure 34. the єHf isotopic data of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic magmatic rocks and related deposit distribution in the Lhasa terrane (modified after Hou[151])
BNSZ-Bangong Co-Nujiang River Suture Zone;IYZSZ-Indus Yarlung Zangbo Suture Zone;NLS-North Lhasa;CLS-Central Lhasa;SLS-South Lhasa
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图 36 大陆板块俯冲角度对高压-超高压变质岩石形成和折返的控制作用
a—高角度大陆板块深俯冲伴随着超高压变质岩石的形成和折返；b—低角度大陆板块平俯冲模型中超高压岩石无法折返，只有高压岩石折返至地表
Figure 36. Constraints of continental subduction angle on the formation and exhumation of HP-UHP metamorphic rocks
a-he formation and exhumation of UHP rocks in the steep continental subduction channel;b-n the flat continental subduction model,only HP rocks can exhume to the surface;while UHP rocks are absent
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图 37 大洋俯冲和大陆碰撞沿走向转换的三维数值模型(据Li[154])
a~b—大洋俯冲一侧的演化特征；c—大陆碰撞一侧的演化特征；d—等效粘滞系数面揭示洋-陆转换会聚深部结构的差异性及地幔流动
Figure 37. Three-dimensional numerical model of the along-strike transition between oceanic subduction and continental collision(after Li[154])
a-b-Model evolution viewed from the oceanic subduction side;c-Model evolution viewed from the continental collision side；d- Iso-viscosity surface reveals the contrasting deep structures between the oceanic subduction and continental collision,as well as the characteristics of deep mantle flow
表 1 蛇绿岩型金刚石与其他类型金刚石的对比
Table 1 Comparison between ophiolite-type diamonds and other type diamonds
类型 蛇绿岩型金刚石 金伯利岩型金刚石 超高压变质型金刚石 赋存岩石 蛇绿岩中的地幔橄榄岩和铬铁矿 来自地幔的金伯利岩 榴辉岩和片麻岩等地壳岩石中 粒径大小 0.2~0.4 mm 宝石级(多为mm级以上) < 0.01 mm 包裹体类型 Ni—Mn—Co合金，Mn撤榄石， Mn石權石，Mn尖晶石 Mg石權石，Mg橄榄石，硫化物， 铬尖晶石等 与金刚石相伴的矿物有镁方解石， 黑云母等壳源矿物 C同位素δ13C) -18~-28 -5~-10 -7~-15 产出构造背景 大洋岩石圈 大陆内部 板块俯冲带 
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